Table 1 Areas of conflict for middle managers (adapted to [2])

Strategies

• MM are usually not involved in strategic considerations [6].

• A limited freedom of creative leeway can demotivate and paralyze [6].

• Imprecise / unrealistically framed strategies require “silent” adaptations (emergent strategies) [7].

• Achievements are usually awarded to the top management [2].

• Failure of a strategy or failure of implementation of strategy will be attributed to the MM [2].

Role function

• MM feel an increasing pressure to succeed with decreasing appreciation of their input [24].

• Compared with the top management, MM try to defend their freedom of action and choice [25].

• Compared to its own employees, MM try to assert their own position [25].

• Various loyalty claims generate stress fields with ambivalence and role dissonance.

• The interface position requires the fulfilment of the “trouble shooter and scapegoat” [26].

• Restructuring/rationalization is carried out to the detriment of the MM (job-, image loss) [27, 28].

Pressure to perform

• MM should resolve conflicts and motivate and create trust [25].

• Authenticity, leadership and management responsibilities are expected from MM.

• The diversity of loyalty towards different stakeholders creates ambivalences [29].

• The commitment to loyalty to multiple senior staff members can generate the allegation of a lack of loyalty to one or more.

Qualification

• For MM time was too short to prepare themselves for new requirements.

• The advancement from a colleague to a supervisor can be perceived as problematic [30].

• Personnel management measures put high demands on communication and conflict skills.

• Young managers need to develop their own leadership style.

• Unclear instructions have to be transferred into clear measures by the MM.

• An obstacle of delegation can overwhelm the MM, while employees might be under-challenged.

Ethics

• The acquisition of ethical values of the company may require the ignorance of own values.

• Exceeding moral limits impose frustrations, uncertainties, and loss of authority.

• A loss of ethical values within a company can demotivate.

• When ethical conflicts become publicized, MM is rapidly becoming a “pawn”. Job losses and the loss of reputation as well as a loss of self-esteem may then assume health-threatening proportions.